Umberto Eco, a prominent figure in the contemporary intellectual landscape as a semiotician, philosopher, and writer, addresses a wide range of themes related to the history of theories of signs and interpretation in his essay “From the Tree to the Labyrinth: Historical Studies on the Sign and Interpretation.” This collection of studies, as the title suggests, aims to explore different models through which humanity has sought to understand and organize knowledge. In this historical and theoretical context, Eco’s thoughts on intuition emerge as a crucial element for understanding his epistemology and his view of interpretive processes. Eco’s approach, deeply rooted in the philosophy of language and the study of signs, does not limit itself to an abstract examination but confronts the various concepts that intuition has assumed throughout the history of thought. The purpose of this report is to analyze in detail how Eco presents his thoughts on intuition within this important work, taking into account his broader theoretical system and the philosophical influences that shaped it.
A central element for understanding Eco’s perspective on intuition is the dichotomy between the “tree” and the “labyrinth” as representative models of our knowledge. The tree model, as illustrated by the “Arbor Porphyriana,” represents a hierarchical and finite structure of logical relationships, proceeding from the highest genus to the lowest species through a system of divisions. Eco criticizes this concept, associating it with a rigid and limited view of knowledge, similar to a dictionary that defines concepts in a closed and unambiguous way. In contrast, the labyrinth model, which is reflected in the structure of the encyclopedia, offers a more dynamic, interconnected image of knowledge characterized by potentially infinite paths. This preference for the labyrinth suggests a view of knowledge as a complex and open system, where the relationships between concepts are multiple and not rigidly predefined. This concept is close to the idea of a “rhizomatic” thought—non-systematic, fragmented, and networked, without a precise beginning and end. The transition from a “tree-like” model to a “labyrinthine” one implies a fundamental change in how we conceive access to knowledge and the role that intuition can play within these different schemes. In a hierarchical and defined system like the tree, intuition could be seen as a direct way to grasp fundamental truths or essential definitions. However, in a labyrinth of connections and interpretations, understanding more likely emerges from navigating through the network of relationships than from a simple intuitive act.
In his essay, Eco explicitly expresses a certain distrust of purely intuitive explanations, especially when it comes to understanding cultural phenomena. He emphasizes the need to seek rules and structural models to make reality intelligible, opposing interpretations based on “mystical intuitions” or a presumed “pure emanation of creative energy.” This position reflects a view of culture as a system of interactions governed by explicit laws, rather than as the product of ineffable individual intuitions. However, Eco does not completely deny the phenomenon of intuition. According to an account from one of his former students, Eco maintained that “intuition was simply fast logic,” exemplified by the deductive capacity of Sherlock Holmes. This interpretation suggests that what appears as an intuitive flash might actually be the result of a rapid and unconscious logical process based on a vast body of prior knowledge. In a more informal context, Eco himself used the expression “flash of intuition” to refer to sudden and fleeting ideas. This indicates that, although he recognizes the existence of such moments, his theoretical analysis focuses on the need to demystify intuition, trying to understand it through more structured and rational mechanisms.
Within his semiotic and epistemological framework, Eco highlights certain limitations of intuition as the sole foundation for knowledge and interpretation. In reference to the artistic field, Eco criticizes the Crocean concept of art as pure intuition, instead adhering to Pareyson’s view that describes artistic production as a process of trial and error and of patient interrogation of pre-existing matter. This perspective emphasizes that creation is not an isolated intuitive act but a process that unfolds over time through interaction with specific materials and techniques. Similarly, for Eco, creativity in general does not stem from a mysterious intuition but from the ability to recognize and activate already existing paths within the semantic organization. Eco’s insistence on the importance of codes, rules, and the “encyclopedia” as fundamental structures for understanding meaning implies that intuition alone is insufficient for navigating the complexity of semiosis. Relying solely on individual intuition would risk overlooking the intersubjective and structural dimensions that Eco considers crucial for the production and interpretation of meaning. This critique of “mystical” intuition is also linked to his caution regarding uncontrolled deconstruction, which he sees as a return to “ineffability,” similar to the inexplicability of intuition.
As an alternative or complement to intuition, Eco places concepts such as the code, the encyclopedia, and abduction at the center of his thinking. The code represents a system of shared rules that allow for the communication and interpretation of signs. The encyclopedia, a concept that Eco develops throughout his career, is understood as a multidimensional space of shared knowledge that governs the production and interpretation of signs within communicative contexts. This encyclopedia is not a simple list of information but a complex network of interconnected knowledge that constitutes a community’s cultural baggage. Finally, abduction, taken from the thought of Charles Sanders Peirce, is conceived as an inferential process through which a hypothesis is formulated to explain a surprising event. These three concepts offer a structured framework for understanding how meaning is produced and interpreted, prioritizing shared knowledge, conventional rules, and logical inference over a notion of intuition as a primary and inexplicable faculty. The emphasis on these elements suggests that for Eco, understanding and interpretation are not purely intuitive processes but activities that are based on systems of shared knowledge and rules, as well as on forms of logical reasoning.
Umberto Eco’s thought on intuition is deeply influenced by pragmatist philosophy, particularly by the works of Charles Sanders Peirce. Eco considered semiotics, which he understood as a general theory of signs, to be a fundamental part of philosophy, since the knowledge of objects and the formulation of ideas occur through signs. Eco’s approach to interpretation as a process of trial and error, similar to Peirce’s abductive reasoning, contrasts with the idea of intuition as cognition not determined by previous cognitions. Even after his reflections on cognition in “Kant and the Platypus,” which might have suggested a return to a form of pre-semiotic intuition, Eco maintained his focus on interpretation derived from hypothetical inference rather than innate intuition. Significantly, Eco expressed his disagreement with the Peircean concept of the “natural world”—the presumed innate ability to guess correctly. This divergence underscores his general caution towards purely intuitive or innate forms of knowledge, preferring an approach that emphasizes inference and cultural mediation. The influence of pragmatism, therefore, played a crucial role in shaping Eco’s view of intuition as “fast logic” and in his predilection for interpretive processes based on rules, shared knowledge, and logical inference.
In conclusion, Umberto Eco, in his essay “From the Tree to the Labyrinth,” presents a critical and reinterpretive view of intuition. While he acknowledges the subjective experience of sudden insights, he distances himself from a concept of intuition as a primary and inexplicable source of knowledge, especially in cultural and creative contexts. His preference for the “labyrinth” model over the “tree” model reflects an epistemology that values interconnectedness, complexity, and inferential processes in understanding the world. Instead of relying on “mystical” intuition, Eco emphasizes the importance of shared codes, the vast network of knowledge represented by the “encyclopedia,” and abductive reasoning as fundamental tools for the interpretation and production of meaning. His conception of intuition as “fast logic” suggests an attempt to integrate the immediacy of intuitive experience with the rational and structured processes that are at the core of his semiotic theory. The influence of Peirce’s pragmatism is evident in his emphasis on inference and the social and cultural nature of knowledge, reinforcing his reluctance to accept intuition as a fundamental and unanalyzed cognitive faculty. Ultimately, Eco’s thought in “From the Tree to the Labyrinth” invites us to reflect on the nature of knowledge and interpretation, shifting the focus from an idea of intuition as a sudden flash to a more articulated understanding of the cognitive and cultural processes that underpin our ability to make sense of the world.
| Perspective/Thinker | View of Intuition | Eco’s Response/Interpretation |
| Croce | Art as introspective intuition | Inspired by Pareyson, art is a process of trial and error, not just intuition |
| General View | Mystical or inexplicable insight | Rejects this in favor of rules, structures, and regulated interaction |
| Eco’s Former Student | Intuition as fast logic | Seems to align with this view, exemplified by Sherlock Holmes |
| Peirce | Cognition not determined by previous cognitions | Criticizes this aspect, emphasizing inference and shared knowledge |
| Peirce | Natural world (natural instinct) | Skeptical about the idea of a mind naturally in harmony with the world |
Immanuel Kant’s (1724–1804) thought is one of the fundamental pillars of modern philosophy. His critical inquiry into reason, knowledge, and morality profoundly influenced Western thought, opening new perspectives and challenging traditional conceptions. In this context, the analysis of language and the meaning of words holds a significant role, even if it is not explicitly at the center of his work. Kant did not dedicate a specific work to the philosophy of language, but his reflections on the matter are scattered throughout various writings, including the “Critique of Pure Reason,” the “Critique of Judgment,” and “Pragmatic Anthropology.”
For Kant, language is strictly connected to thought and knowledge. He distinguishes between two types of language: symbolic and discursive. According to Kant, symbolic language, typical of Eastern cultures, is based on the use of images and symbols to represent reality. This type of language is considered primitive and limited, as it does not allow for the formation of abstract and universal concepts and consequently hinders cultural and moral progress. An example of symbolic language could be the use of hieroglyphics to communicate ideas and concepts.
Discursive language, on the other hand, is characterized by the use of words and the presence of a grammatical structure. This type of language, which Kant attributes to Western culture, is considered superior because it allows concepts and judgments to be expressed clearly and precisely, fostering communication and the progress of knowledge. An example of discursive language is the Italian language, with its grammatical structure and rich and articulate vocabulary.
Kant emphasizes the importance of discursive language for the development of thought and morality. Only through words is it possible to formulate universal concepts and moral principles valid for all rational beings. Furthermore, Kant argues that language, and discursive language in particular, is not innate but is acquired gradually during human development.
A fundamental aspect of Kant’s thought on language is the emphasis on intersubjectivity. Kant argues that to formulate objective judgments about reality, thought must be intersubjectively communicable, and this is only possible through language. In other words, the ability to communicate one’s thoughts to others and to compare them with their thoughts is essential to guarantee the objectivity of knowledge.
For Kant, the meaning of a word does not lie in its simple correspondence with an external object but in its function within the system of concepts and judgments that constitute our knowledge. The word, therefore, is not a simple sign that denotes a thing but an active element that helps to structure our thought.
Kant distinguishes between intuitions and concepts. Intuitions are immediate representations of objects provided by the senses, while concepts are general and abstract representations elaborated by the intellect. For example, the sensation of the red color of an apple is an intuition, while the concept of “fruit” is a general representation that includes different types of fruits, including the apple.
Language, through words, allows intuitions to be connected to concepts, enabling the formation of judgments and knowledge of reality. The word “apple,” for example, connects the intuition of the red color, the round shape, and the sweet flavor to a general concept that allows us to classify and understand that object.
In this process, the meaning of a word is determined by its relationship with other concepts and its role within the linguistic system. Kant emphasizes the importance of the correct use of language and terminological precision to avoid ambiguity and misunderstandings. For example, the word “freedom” can have different meanings depending on the context in which it is used (political freedom, freedom of thought, freedom of choice, etc.). A precise use of language requires clearly defining the meaning one intends to attribute to a word in a specific context.
A key insight in Kant’s thought is that language does not merely represent the world but actively shapes it. Words are not passive labels that we apply to objects but tools that allow us to organize and interpret reality. This view of language as an active element in the construction of knowledge distinguishes Kant from other more passive or representationalist theories of language.
Another important aspect of Kant’s philosophy of language is the distinction between analytic and synthetic judgments. An analytic judgment is a judgment in which the predicate is already contained in the subject (for example, “All bachelors are unmarried men”). A synthetic judgment, on the other hand, adds new information to the subject (for example, “This apple is red”). Kant argues that synthetic a priori judgments are possible, meaning that we can know truths that are not simply deducible from the definition of concepts but that expand our knowledge of the world. This distinction between analytic and synthetic judgments had a profound influence on the subsequent development of the philosophy of language.
Kant pays particular attention to the analysis of concepts and definitions. He distinguishes different types of concepts, such as empirical concepts (derived from experience) and pure concepts (derived from the a priori intellect). Furthermore, Kant analyzes different types of definitions, such as nominal definitions (which explain the meaning of a word) and real definitions (which describe the essence of a thing). This analysis of concepts and definitions helps to clarify the role of language in the formation of knowledge and to promote a precise and rigorous use of words.
Kant also questions the origin of language. He proposes an explanation that connects the origin of language to the development of human reason. According to Kant, language is not a divine gift or a product of chance but a creation of human reason that emerges from the need to communicate and share one’s thoughts with others.
Kant’s reflection on the meaning of words fits into his general philosophy, particularly his theory of knowledge and his ethics.
In the “Critique of Pure Reason,” Kant argues that human knowledge is limited to the phenomenal world—that is, the world as it appears to us through the senses and the categories of the intellect. Language, as an instrument of knowledge, is also subject to this limitation. Words cannot describe the “noumenal” reality, which is reality in itself, independent of our experience. This limitation of language reflects the limitation of human knowledge itself.
In Kantian ethics, language plays an important role in the formulation of the categorical imperative, the fundamental principle of morality. The categorical imperative, which prescribes acting according to a maxim that can be universalized, requires the use of language to express and communicate moral laws. For example, the maxim “Do not steal” can be linguistically expressed and universalized, becoming a moral law valid for all rational beings. Language, therefore, is essential for the formulation and understanding of moral principles.
Kant’s thought on language influenced numerous subsequent philosophers. For example, Johann Gottfried Herder, while criticizing some aspects of Kantian thought, recognized the importance of language for the formation of culture and individual identity. Ludwig Wittgenstein, in his “Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus,” also took up some Kantian themes, developing a theory of language as a “picture of the world.”
“Linguistic Kantianism” is a philosophical current of the 20th century that attributes a fundamental role to language in the structuring of thought and reality. This current, while inspired by Kant, is distinguished from his thought by its emphasis on linguistic relativism and the plurality of forms of life.
Kant’s thought on the meaning of words is complex and articulated. He recognizes the importance of language for the development of thought, knowledge, and morality but also emphasizes its limits and its dependence on the a priori structures of the human mind. The word, for Kant, is not a simple tool for communication but an active element that contributes to structuring our experience of the world.
Kantian reflection on language highlights a tension between the aspiration to universal concepts and the intrinsic limits of language. On the one hand, Kant emphasizes the importance of formulating universal concepts valid for all rational beings. On the other hand, he recognizes that language, being rooted in human experience, is subject to limits and conditioning. This tension reflects the difficulty of achieving universal and objective knowledge through language.
Kant’s philosophy of language had a lasting influence on subsequent philosophy, stimulating debates and interpretations that continue even today. His reflections on the role of language in knowledge, morality, and the construction of reality offer fundamental insights for understanding the nature of language and its relationship with human thought.
Charles Sanders Peirce, an American philosopher and logician, developed a complex theory of knowledge in which intuition plays a peculiar and dynamic role. Unlike Kant, who considered intuition as a passive faculty that receives information from the external world, Peirce sees it as an active process of interpretation and construction of meaning.
For Peirce, intuition is not a direct and immediate access to reality but a form of cognition that is not determined by a previous cognition of the same object. In other words, intuition is a form of knowledge that emerges from the interaction between the mind and the world and is based on the interpretation of signs and the formation of habits.
Peirce distinguishes between different types of intuition, including perceptual intuition, conceptual intuition, and abductive intuition. Perceptual intuition is the most basic form of intuition and allows us to perceive the world around us through the senses. Conceptual intuition allows us to form concepts and understand the relationships between them. Finally, abductive intuition is the most creative form of intuition and allows us to formulate hypotheses and discover new connections between things.
For Peirce, intuition is fundamental to the process of scientific inquiry, as it allows us to formulate hypotheses and interpret empirical data. However, intuition is not infallible and must always be subject to verification and revision through the scientific method.
In summary, Peirce’s thought on intuition differs from Kant’s in the following aspects:
Furthermore, Peirce emphasizes the importance of context and interpretation in the formation of intuition. Intuition is not an isolated process but develops within a community of interpreters and through interaction with the world.
In conclusion, Peirce offers a view of intuition as a dynamic and interpretive process, based on the interaction between the mind, the world, and signs. This view differs from that of Kant, who considered intuition as a passive and immediate faculty.
Kant considers intuition as an immediate representation of objects provided by the senses. It is the basis of our sensory knowledge and allows us to perceive the world around us. Intuition, for Kant, is passive, meaning it receives information from the external world without actively processing it. Furthermore, intuition is always spatial and temporal, as space and time are the a priori forms of sensibility—that is, the conditions that make sensory experience possible.
Eco, in his book “From the Tree to the Labyrinth,” analyzes the evolution of the concept of encyclopedia and knowledge throughout history. In this context, he criticizes the idea of intuition as a source of immediate and absolute knowledge. Eco argues that knowledge is always mediated by signs and interpretations, and that there is no direct and intuitive access to reality. For Eco, intuition is an illusion, a simplistic way of thinking that does not take into account the complexity of the cognitive process.
In summary, the following differences can be identified between Kant’s and Eco’s thought on intuition:
Furthermore, Eco questions the idea of a universal and immutable order, which was the basis of the Kantian conception of intuition as the faculty of grasping the a priori forms of sensibility. Influenced by Peirce’s thought, Eco emphasizes the dynamic and interpretive nature of knowledge, which is built through a continuous process of semiosis—that is, the interpretation of signs.
In conclusion, while Kant considers intuition a fundamental faculty for sensory knowledge, Eco criticizes it as an illusion that does not take into account the complexity of the cognitive process. Eco proposes a more dynamic and interpretive view of knowledge, in line with his conception of the world as a labyrinth of signs and interpretations.
Neuroscience offers interesting insights into the neural mechanisms underlying intuition. Although intuition has traditionally been considered a mysterious and inexplicable phenomenon, neuroscientific research is beginning to shed light on the brain processes that generate it.
In conclusion, neuroscience is providing an increasingly detailed picture of the neural mechanisms that underlie intuition. Intuition seems to be a complex process that involves emotions, past experience, different brain regions, and even the gut. Future research will be able to further deepen our understanding of this fascinating phenomenon.
Researchers have used various techniques to study the neural correlates of decision-making. One common strategy is to use functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to measure changes in blood oxygen levels in the brain as people make decisions. fMRI studies have shown that the PFC is activated during decision-making, especially when the decision is difficult or complex. The PFC is also activated when people are learning from their decisions, which suggests that it plays a role in updating our knowledge about the world and how to make decisions.
Here are some of the specific brain areas that are involved in decision-making:
In addition to these specific brain areas, there are a number of other brain regions that are involved in decision-making, including the parietal cortex, the temporal cortex, and the hippocampus. The parietal cortex is involved in processing sensory information, and it helps to guide decisions based on the current state of the environment. The temporal cortex is involved in processing auditory and visual information, and it helps to guide decisions based on the information that is being perceived. The hippocampus is involved in memory, and it helps to store information that is relevant to decision-making.
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The transformation of sensory input to motor output through the higher-order cognitive process of decision-making is the most challenging aspect of neuroscience.
In doing so, we are afforded a glimpse of the building blocks of higher thought and consciousness. A stimulus might motivate a particular behavior, but the action may be delayed, pending additional information, or it may never occur. This freedom from the immediacy of action means there are operations that transpire over time scales that are not immediately beholden to changes in the environment or the real-time demands of control of the body. Of course, not all decisions invoke cognition.
Many behavioral routines (swimming, walking, feeding, and grooming) have branch points that may be called decisions, but they proceed in an orderly manner without much flexibility or control of the tempo. They are governed mainly by the time steps of nervous transmission and are dedicated for the most part to particular input–output relationships.
A decision is a commitment to a proposition, action, or plan based on evidence (sensory input), prior knowledge (memory), and expected outcomes. The commitment is provisional. It does not necessitate behavior, and it can be modified. We can change our minds. The critical component is that some consideration of evidence leads to a change in the state of the organism that we liken to a provisional implementation of an action, strategy, or new mental process.
Such propositions can be represented as a plan of action: I decide to turn to the right, to leave safe shelter, to look for water, to choose a path least likely to encounter a predator, to approach a stranger, or to seek information in a book.
This view invites us to consider knowing as the result of directed (mostly non-conscious) interrogation, rather than an emergent property of neural representations.
The simplest type of decision involves the detection of a weak stimulus, such as a dim light or a faint sound, odor, or touch. Such experiments were therefore used to infer the fundamental sensitivities of a sensory system from behavior, a subfield of psychology known as psycho-physics.
The psychophysical investigation of perception began with Ernst Weber and Gustav Fechner in the 19th century. They were interested in measuring the smallest detectable difference in intensity between two sensory stimuli. It turns out they also lay the foundation for the neuroscience of decision-making because every yes/no answer is a choice based on sensory evidence.
The brain does not directly perceive a stimulus but receives a neural representation of the sample. As a result, some of the noise arises from the neural activity involved in forming this representation. It is the job of the brain to decide from which distribution the sample came, using information encoded in neural firing rates. However, the brain does not have access to the distributions, just the one sample involved in each given decision. It is the separation of these distributions—the degree that they do not overlap—that determines the discriminability of a stimulus from noise. The decision rule is to say “yes” if the evidence exceeds some criterion or threshold.
The challenge for neuroscience is to relate the terms signal, noise, and criterion to neural representations of sensory information and operations upon those representations that result in a choice.
What type of sensory information is produced by different afferent units? What is the encoding of information from the visual, auditory, and somatosensory channels?
The visual and auditory systems, in particular, employ an information-processing strategy that begins at the sensory level (retina and cochlea). The encoding allows for a significant extension of bandwidth and a transition to progressively more abstract categorization as information flows from the periphery towards the center, namely specialized cortical structures for sensory modalities: visual areas and auditory areas.
The auditory pathways: rules for encoding information
These make perception of various auditory features, such as pitch, loudness, and timing.
The visual pathways: rules for encoding information
These make perception of various visual features, such as colors, contrast, spatial position, and temporal sequence.
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Le metodologie a disposizione consentono di verificare la regolare funzionalità di alcune delle principali funzioni regolatorie del cervello, anche in condizioni di anestesia generale. Si possono controllare le vie motorie, sensitive, sensoriali (acustica e visiva) e alcune risposte riflesse stimolo correlate come il riflesso “H” e le risposte “F”.
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Organization of the motor systemWhat do we mean by “motor program” and by learning a motor skill? The central nervous system does not define in detail the displacement of the effectors (muscles), the rotations of the joints, the muscular forces, the joint pressures and the muscular activations, therefore the term engram or neuronal representation seems to provide a better indication (given the current knowledge ) of how the central nervous system codes for purposeful voluntary movements and has no relation to involuntary (automatic) movements.
Reference to “Biomechanics and motor control – defining central concepts” M.L. Latash and V.M. Zatsiorsky, 2016.
The means available to study the different functional aspects of the motor system are rather ineffective in defining a precise location of all the sub-components of the system itself. Once again the detailed study of the activity of single motor units or of the activity of single neuronal groups only provides us with specific information but does not allow us to hypothesize if not generically a motor control function. The “dynamic” approach to the control system seems to promise good prospects for understanding the motor system. In other words, only by causing a perturbation in the control system, will we be able to trace the strategies that the system is able to implement to compensate for the induced perturbation; in this way we will be able to quantify exactly how much the system is no longer able to implement due to an inefficiency linked, for example, to aging, or rather to a lesion in the system itself (in the control section or in the of the effectors).
Some questions
The motor system is the set of structures of the central and peripheral nervous system that allows us to transform a “nerve signal” into muscle contraction.
Works in an integrated way with the sensory and sensitive systems (visual, auditory, somatosensory and postural); the latter provide the representation of the external world, of the context in which the motor system plans, coordinates and executes the set of motor acts aimed at a purpose.
The motor system is hierarchically organized into three levels: spinal cord, brainstem, and cerebral cortex. Each level, thanks to the afferent and efferent connections, is able to organize or regulate complex motor responses. Movement information is processed by different systems, which operate in parallel.
The basal nuclei participate in the planning and execution of the movement, which together with the cerebellum are part of feedback circuits that control both the cortex and the brainstem.
The nuclei of the base are involved in motivational processes and in the choice of behavioral plans that allow adaptation to various environmental conditions.
The cerebellum is involved in the coordination and accuracy of ongoing movements and in learning motor skills.
Cortical motor areas receive cortical and subcortical inputs, process information, and emit inputs to the brainstem and spinal cord.
The efferents are the cortico-bulbar and cortico-spinal pathways.
Cortical motor areas contain neurons that project to other cortical areas and the spinal cord. The main subdivision must be made between the primary Motor areas (M1 or Brodman area 4) and the pre-motor areas (Brodman area 6).
Layer V of the cortex of M1 contains upper motor neurons (Betz cells, which are very large and represent no more than 5% of the cells that project to the spinal cord) and non-Betz cells, also present in the premotor areas. The axons of these neurons descend to the brainstem through the cortical-bulbar tract and to the spinal cord through the cortical-spinal tract which, at the level of the ventral portion of the bulb form the bulbar pyramids and 90% of the fibers cross on the midline giving rise to the lateral cortical-spinal bundle; 10% of the fibers do not cross and give rise to the ventral corticospinal bundle.
The motor cortex contains a spatial map of the contralateral half of the body but not as precise as those of the somatosensory areas: a motor neuron does not correspond to a single muscle but to a group of muscles (muscle field), it follows that an M1 motor neuron codes for an organized movement. the topographical representations of movement are likely organized according to ethologically relevant categories of motor behavior. It is believed that M1 would be particularly concerned with hand and oral behaviors that occur in the “personal space”. A muscle can contract as a result of the stimulation of different cortical areas and therefore different cortical areas project (converge) on each muscle. Within the single large areas (arm, leg, etc…) there is a concentric organization: the sites that affect distal muscles are central to a larger area that also contains sites that affect proximal muscles, while sites peripheral to the central area control only proximal muscles.
The individual cortical motor neurons (Betz cells) project directly to spinal alpha motor neurons and involve more than one motor nucleus and sometimes even muscles of different joints and have phasic-tonic activity: they discharge quickly during the dynamic phase of the movement and reduce the discharge to a continuously lower (tonic) level when a stable strength level is reached.
Motor neurons of M1 code for some movement parameters:
There is therefore a transcortical circuit that allows M1 to elaborate rapid responses (faster than simple reaction time and less rapid than spinal reflexes) with a degree of flexibility that spinal reflexes do not have.
In the control of the movements of the fingers, the cortical neuronal populations promote mechanisms of activation and inhibition of muscles that act on all the fingers of the hand. The very nature of the motor task (power take-off or precision grip) contributes to determining the choice of cortical motor neurons to be used for a given muscle, therefore even if a spinal motor neuron is monosynaptically connected to a cortical motor cell, its activity does not it changes coherently with the variations of the cortical cell, as the multiplicity of connections that the spinal motor neuron receives makes its activity flexible, adapting to the motor task that must be performed.
Some cortical motor neurons modify their firing frequency in proportion to the force to be developed, while others reduce it. However, the latter have an excitatory function on the target muscles, but discharge only when fine movements or gradual changes in strength are performed. Their function could be a more accurate reduction of the recruitment of motor units than that which would be obtained with the simple inhibition of cortical motor neurons of the first type mentioned above.
They are a complex set of interconnected areas of the frontal lobe that lie anterior to the primary motor cortex and control motor functions. The cortical areas (second subdivision of Brodman) forming part of this set are: area &, area 8, area 44/45 and part of areas 23 and 24 on the medial surface of the hemisphere.
The influence on the movement is exerted through a direct route (projections to the cortico-bulbar and cortico-spinal tracts) and an indirect route through extensive reciprocal connections with M1 and therefore the efferents are similar to those of the primary motor cortex while the afferents are clearly different.
Medial and lateral pre-motor areas are distinguished:
Lesions of the frontal lobe in the premotor areas result in difficulty choosing a movement in response to a stimulus, although understanding of instructions and the ability to execute the movements are retained.
They are a collection of interconnected areas of the frontal lobe that lie anterior to the primary motor cortex and control motor functions. The areas that are part of this set according to Brodman are: area 6, area 8, area 44/45 (on the lateral surface of the frontal lobe), and parts of areas 23 and 24 on the medial surface of the hemisphere.
The influence on movement is exerted through a direct route (projections to the cortico-bulbar and cortico-spinal tracts) and an indirect route (extensive reciprocal connections with M1); the efferents therefore overlap with those of the primary motor cortex, while the afferents are very different.
We can distinguish the pre-motor areas into medial and lateral.
The pre-motor areas are involved in the reaching and grasping movements: these are classic movements aimed at a goal, finalized and require a sensory-motor transformation process (processing of spatial information on the position of the object and of our arm in order to set the movement correctly). The circuits involved in reaching and grasping are parietomotor and act in parallel.
In the reaching movement, the parameters (direction and amplitude of movement) depend on the location of the target with respect to us:
In the grasping movement the parameters depend on the shape and size of the object:
The subcortical systems involved in movement are the cerebellum and the basal nuclei.
It has a homogeneous organization, but each area receives afferents from different portions of the brain or spinal cord. This suggests that the cerebellum performs the same type of computational operations on different afferent signals.
The primary function of the cerebellum is to detect the difference (“motor error”) between a planned movement and the actual movement and, once the error has been detected, send signals (through projections to the upper motor neurons), in order to induce a reduction of the same mistake.
It has 3 functionally distinct regions: the cerebellar cortex, the white matter, and the deep nuclei.
The cerebellar cortex is made up of three layers in which there are five types of cells. Four types of cells are inhibitory (stellate cells, basket cells, Purkinje cells, and Golgi cells). Granule cells are excitatory.
Three pairs of deep nuclei: the fastigium, the interpositon and the dentate.
The cerebellum is connected to the brain stem by three symmetrical pairs of bundles of nerve fibers, called the inferior, middle, and superior cerebellar peduncles. The latter contains most of the efferent connections of the cerebellum.
The cerebellum receives two types of afferents: mossy fibers and climbing fibers. Both are excitatory fibers (main excitatory circuit) and target Purkinje cells, but the connections they establish in the pathway are different and, therefore, generate different responses (inhibitory cortical circuits).
The cerebellum is divided into vestibulo-cerebellum, spino-cerebellum, and cerebro-cerebellum based on the origin of the afferents. The vestibulo-cerebellum relates to the lateral and medial vestibular nuclei, while the spino-cerebellum and cerebro-cerebellum relate respectively to the deep fastigium and interpositon nuclei and the dentate nucleus, through which they project to the thalamus and, finally, to the cortex .
The execution of a movement determines a relative activation of climbing fibers which can generate an error signal (due to the detection of differences between expected and transmitted sensory signals), depressing the parallel fibers (which carry “incongruous” central signals) and therefore correcting the movement. As the movement is repeated the effects of parallel fiber signaling become less and less and the movement becomes more and more correct. This explains why as a result of cerebellar lesions motor learning may fail.
The vestibule-cerebellum has inhibitory efferences directed only towards the medial and lateral vestibular nuclei; in this way it controls the eye movements, the coordination of the movement of the eyes and the head and the maintenance of balance and the upright position during the walk.
Injuries of these pathways determine the inability to use vestibular information to control standing and walking: gait with an enlarged support base to compensate for the deficit that often results in falls to the ground anyway (regardless of whether their eyes are open or closed ); these patients, on the other hand, have no problems in controlling the limbs during the execution of the various types of movement when they are lying down or supported.
The spino-cerebellum emits direct efferences to the cortex, brainstem, cortico-spinal and rubro-spinal systems. Check your posture, locomotion and gaze direction. It is roughly organized in somatotopic maps, but with microscopic recordings they demonstrate a fragmented somatotopy (the afferents coming from a precise peripheral site are distributed divergently and terminate at the level of many areas in relation with circumscribed aggregates of granules). Movement control is operated with feed-forward mechanisms.
Lesions of the interpositus nucleus cause a reduction in the activity of generation of the excitatory postsynaptic potential with consequent reduced stimulation of rubro / cortico-spinal neurons, and a reduced neuronal excitability that manifests itself clinically with a reduced muscle tone (cerebellar hypotonia). The other problem is the deficit of anticipatory control on the motility of the (lower) limb ipsilateral to the lesion, the clinical manifestations of which are an oscillatory response (pendular reflexes) to an external perturbation and an irregular oscillation around the target (terminal tremor) at the end of the rejoining movement. The cerebellar dysmetria and ataxia is all the more evident the more joints are involved in the movement as the cerebellum has to mediate a greater number of proprioceptive information.
The lesions of the worm and of the nucleus of the fastygium cause alterations of the language, which becomes slow and with the emission of one word at a time (pronounced language).
The cerebro-cerebellum emits efferences towards the primary motor, pre-motor and pre-frontal cortex. It deals with the planning of complex actions, their mental repetition and the conscious evaluation of errors in movements. Injuries of this path cause decomposition of the movement of the half of the body ipsilateral to the lesion and increase in reaction times.
In general, lesions of the medial position of the cerebellum interfere with the accuracy of execution of motor responses, while lesions of the lateral portion interfere with the temporal succession of serial events.
They are the main components of the reentrant cortico-subcortical circuits that connect the cortex and the thalamus. They affect movement by regulating the activity of upper motor neurons.
They include four formations: the striatum (caudate, putamen, ventral striatum) and the pale globe (internal and external) emit GABAergic initorial projections, the substantia nigra (pars compacta and pars reticulata) that emits dopaminergic projections, and the subthalamic nucleus that emits projections glutamatergic excitatory.
From a functional point of view, two ways: direct and indirect.
The basal ganglia, relating to the cerebral cortex and the thalamus, take part in the skeleton-motor circuit. Within this circuit it is possible to identify sub-circuits organized in a somatotopic and functional way (the dorso-lateral portion of the putamen deals with the leg, the ventro-medial portion of the face and the intermediate portion of the arm). When a subject has to perform a movement and receives the indication on the direction of this movement, the cortex (M1, pre-motor, SMA) modifies the firing frequency generating the “motor attitude”, while putamen and internal pale globe modify the discharge rate to produce two possible responses:
Disturbances in the activity of the indirect route can generate hypokinetic or hyperkinetic problems. Hyperactivity of the indirect pathway causes hypokinetic disorders such as Parkinson’s disease, while hypoactivity of the same indirect pathway causes pathologies such as Huntington’s chorea.
How to design a CDSS: Clinical Decision Support System
Movement control is a process that takes place mostly autonomously (not consciously) but whose effects / results are indispensable for interaction and environmental survival. Motor behavior is the result of a long period of years of learning the motor strategies that spontaneously or specifically addressed (training), are acquired as procedural baggage.
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Link al sito di Deep Learning utilities

A visualization of the model taken at one time point while running. Each sphere represents a computational unit, with lines representing the connection between units. The colors represent the output of each unit. The left and right of the image are the inputs to the model and the center is the output, which is used to guide the virtual bee down a simulated corridor. (credit: The University of Sheffield)
]]>Studio sull’invecchiamento fisiologico del sistema motorio
Capita frequentemente di osservare persone i cui movimenti ci sembrano impacciati, lenti o con qualche difficoltà. E il nostro giudizio è spesso influenzato dall’età della persona: più la sua età è elevata, più giudichiamo “normali” i disturbi del movimento. Questo giudizio non è però confortato da sufficienti dati quantitativi di certezza scientifica sul manifestarsi dell’invecchiamento del sistema motorio ed è quindi necessario raccogliere dati per arricchire le conoscenze sul comportamento motorio della popolazione.
La nostra ricerca si focalizza su queste problematiche e a tale scopo abbiamo sviluppato l’applicazione “MotorBrain”, che misura i movimenti di controllo della mano considerando caratteristiche quali precisione, velocità di esecuzione e tempo di reazione visivo – motorio. “MotorBrain” contiene 6 test motori che raccolgono tali informazioni. Ogni test richiede agli utenti la ripetizione di almeno tre prove, in modo da avere una migliore statistica dei dati. Inoltre, ogni test può essere eseguito con entrambe le mani. Si raccomanda di eseguire ogni test prima con la mano dominante (quella con cui si scrive o si tiene la forchetta per mangiare), poi con l’altra.
I dati raccolti dall’applicazione (questionari e movimenti degli utenti nei test) verranno inviati dall’applicazione, esclusivamente in forma anonima e in nessun modo riconducibile all’utente, ad un server universitario con una connessione sicura e salvati in un database protetto. Il database verrà usato per calcolare le distribuzioni statistiche delle misure di precisione, velocità e tempo di reazione visivo – motoria della popolazione, suddivisa per fasce di età.
Le implicazioni della ricerca sono molteplici. Dal punto di vista diagnostico, l’analisi del database potrebbe portare ad utilizzare la stessa tecnologia e metodologia dei test di prestazione motoria su pazienti con disturbo del movimento, per arrivare ad una diagnosi differenziale tra diverse patologie di “disordini del movimento” e produrre un marker precoce di “invecchiamento patologico del sistema motorio”. Dal punto di vista riabilitativo, potrebbe portare al perfezionamento di uno strumento personalizzabile ed in grado di eseguire un training riabilitativo sfruttando i processi di riadattamento funzionale del sistema nervoso centrale (plasticità), in particolare nella gestione del movimento e della memoria procedurale.
Link al sito di MotorBrain http://hcilab.uniud.it/motorbrain/
N
ell’immagine a sinistra sono evidenziati i solchi e le circonvoluzioni della superficie corticale ricavate dalla RM; vi è sovrapposta l’area di attivazione sensoriale da stimolazione delle fibre del nervo mediano al polso, bilateralmente.
Sull’emisfero di sinistra la struttura anatomica risulta deformata a causa di una lesione espansiva sottostante che, tuttavia, non impedisce una regolare attivazione afferente del sistema somato-sensoriale.
CENNI STORICI
L’idea che il cervello controlli il corpo come chi fa
muovere le marionette agendo sui fili di controllo, è suggestiva ma anche molto semplicistica. Dalla scoperta dei riflessi muscolari (riflessi osteo tendinei) nel ‘900, si è posta notevole enfasi sulla natura riflessa dei movimenti. Ivan Sechenov (1829 – 1905) e il suo studente Ivan Pavlov (1849 – 1936) hanno proposto la teoria che i movimenti, come pure le azioni mentali, siano composti da una sequenza di riflessi. William James (1842 – 1910) propose l’ipotesi della catena di riflessi, opportunamente selezionati e combinati, come motore causale dei movimenti stessi.
Gli studi sperimentali di Charles Sherrington (1857 – 1952) portarono alla teoria della locomozione come sequenza di riflessi di flessione e di estensione crociata agli arti inferiori. In seguito la teoria riflessa di Sherrinthon fu rifiutata a favore della nozione di un generatore centrale di pattern di movimenti ritmici(CPG), compresa la deambulazione.
Nel lavoro del 1935 di Nikolai Bernstein (1896 – 1966) si enfatizzò il ruolo attivo, piuttosto che solamente reattivo, dei movimenti biologici, introducendo il concetto di engramma, quale rappresentazione astratta dei movimenti a livello del sistema nervoso centrale.
Per analizzare la complessità del sistema motorio, prendiamo in considerazione due condizioni determinanti: la postura e il grasping.
La postura è caratterizzabile dalla sua configurazione e dalla sua stabilità. L’idea di un sistema di controllo basato su configurazioni di riferimento (del corpo) e di sinergie muscolari di adattamento, è l’unica al momento in grado di spiegare la complessità del movimento del corpo umano nella sua statica e nella sua dinamica.
Nel grasping le attività della mano comprendono tre sequenze :
La classificazione dei movimenti di grasping comprende il power grip (l’oggetto è in contatto con il palmo della mano) e il precision grip (solo le dita sono in contatto con l’oggetto).
In letteratura sono piuttosto limitate le informazioni disponibili sulle modificazioni fisiologiche del sistema motorio indotte dal normale processo di invecchiamento. In particolare non sappiamo fino a che punto sia fisiologico, o correlato esclusivamente all’aumento dell’età, il rallentamento dei movimenti, l’incremento del tempo di reazione e la precisione dei movimenti stessi.
Recenti acquisizioni permettono di affermare la notevole importanza della capacità motoria dell’uomo anche nel processo di sviluppo / conservazione della memoria. Il cervello è un sistema di complesse interazioni con l’ambiente esterno ma anche con l’ambiente interno (il veicolo su cui è installato): si è abituato a gestire sistemi in movimento e continua a farlo fino alla fine della vita, pertanto, in attesa che i fautori del transumanesimo riescano ad installare il cervello (o meglio la nostra mente) su di un sistema semovente, noi ci limitiamo a cercare di conoscere a fondo come il cervello si adatta, nel corso degli anni, alla perdita di prestazioni del veicolo su cui è installato.
PROGETTO MOTORBRAIN
Lo sviluppo del progetto MotorBrain si è articolato proprio con l’obiettivo primario di raccogliere informazioni dalla popolazione nel più ampio spettro di età possibile, sul comportamento del sistema motorio, in particolare sulla capacità di “precision grip”.
L’app MotorBrain è stata sviluppata in collaborazione tra docenti del Laboratorio di Interazione Uomo-Macchina dell’Università di Udine e medici del Dipartimento di Neuroscienze dell’Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria “S.M. della Misericordia” di Udine.
ATTENZIONE: L’applicazione ed i suoi contenuti non sono in alcun modo da intendersi come sostituti di un consulto medico, diagnosi o trattamento.
In letteratura si dimostra che le capacità motorie si modificano nel corso della vita, migliorando dal bambino all’adulto e poi peggiorando progressivamente con l’avanzare dell’età [1, 2]. Non disponiamo tuttavia di misure affidabili delle performance motorie della popolazione e d’altra parte è difficile progettare uno studio di raccolta di dati “normali” in un campione esteso che possa essere rappresentativo della popolazione per estensione di età, per sesso e per prevalenza manuale.
Lo sviluppo di sistemi computerizzati di raccolta dati consente di eseguire test di misura su device collocati a domicilio o semplicemente mobili (smart phones o tablets). L’App MotorBrain consente di ottenere una rapida valutazione delle proprie performance motorie, di controllarne l’andamento nel tempo ripetendo i test nelle stesse condizioni e di fornire i dati raccolti ad un data base generale che viene costantemente aggiornato e utilizzato a scopo clini
co / diagnostico nei disturbi del movimento da parte di neurologi, fisiatri e gruppi di ricerca che lavorano sulle caratteristiche del sistema motorio dell’uomo.
Solo di recente sono stati in parte individuati i fattori che concorrono al processo di invecchiamento fisiologico del sistema motorio [3], e il database che si sta raccogliendo permette di confrontare le performance di un paziente con sospetto disturbo del movimento e di seguirne l’andamento nel tempo in seguito ad evoluzione naturale o in seguito a provvedimenti terapeutici di tipo farmacologico o fisioterapico.
Moduli costitutivi di MotorBrain
L’applicazione sviluppata in Unity [4], è distribuita per i 3 maggiori sistemi operativi mobile (Android, iOS e Windows Phone). Sono presenti tre moduli principali che configurano due test motori ciascuno, dedicati rispettivamente alla accuratezza del movimento, alla velocità del movimento ed al tempo di reazione visivo – motorio.
Il modulo accuratezza è composto da 2 test (cerchio precisione e
quadrato precisione) in cui, utilizzando la punta
del dito indice, si deve seguire la traccia colorata:

Il modulo velocità è composto da 2 test (cerchio velocità e linea zig-zag) in cui, utilizzando la punta del dito indice, si deve seguire la linea colorata nel minore tempo possibile:

più giri possibili in un tempo predefinito, rimanendo sempre s
Il modulo tempo di reazione è composto da 2 test (tapping test a due posizioni e tapping test a quattro posizioni):

nsiste nel rispondere nel minore tempo possibile, premendo il pu
Tutti i test devono essere ripetuti in 3 prove consecutive, per consentire una validazione statistica delle misure di performance
Analisi dei risultati raccolti nel dataBase
L’obiettivo finale dell’analisi è quello di definire e costruire un modello statistico della biomeccanica del movimento di precisione (precision grip) delle dita della mano destra e sinistra. nella popolazione normale, tenendo conto dell’invecchiamento fisiologico.
Analisi preliminare dei dati raccolti
In questa fase è determinante l’esplorazione dei dati raccolti al fine di escludere le registrazioni incomplete, le registrazioni non attendibili e per eseguire uno stretto controllo dei comportamenti dei soggetti defibili come “outliers”. Tale revisione dei dati si avvale di controlli statistici di distribuzione dei dati e di controllo ispettivo dei tracciati grafici di ogni test eseguito.
Estrazione delle caratteristiche descrittive del modello
Il modello si avvale delle 3 principali caratteristiche individuate nei 3 cluster di test motori (accuratezza, velocità e tempo di reazione). Per ognuno dei 3 cluster si ottengono i seguenti descrittori di performance:
Si utilizzano metodologie di classificazione di “machine learning” per costruire i pattern caratteristici di ciascuna classe di età dei soggetti raccolti nel database.
MotorBrain (2.0)
Nella seconda versione del progetto MotorBrain sono state introdotte particolari condizioni di attività nella gestione dei test motori che, genericamente, definiamo come perturbazioni. Tenendo conto che tali fenomeni sono inevitabilmente mediati dalla percezione visiva, si sono impostati eventi casuali di modificazione di alcune caratteristiche fisiche del test motorio, già precedentemente eseguito.
Definizione delle perturbazioni
Una perturbazione visiva nel corso della esecuzione del cerchio precisione, consiste ad esempio nella scomparsa della “traccia guida” durante l’esecuzione del compito per testare se e come il soggetto è in grado di completare il compito senza la guida sottostante.
Una perturbazione spaziale nel corso della esecuzione del tapping test, cosiste nello spostamento del bersaglio dopo un certo numero di eventi a posizione fissa.
riferimenti bibliografici
Nomenclatura
EMG : indica la categoria generale della metodica definita come “elettromiografia” e che attiene a tutto quanto è in relazione all’attività elettrica generata dal sistema neuromuscolare. Tale attività elettrica può essere indagata in maniera non invasiva con sistemi di registrazione di superficie (sEMG) o con metodiche invasive (elettrodi ad ago concentrico, elettrodi ad ago mono polari, elettrodi a filo) per l’analisi dettagliata delle caratteristiche delle unità motorie e delle caratteristiche di conduzione a livello della interfaccia nervo / muscolo : placca neuromuscolare.

La sEMG presenta sostanziali differenze rispetto alla EMG invasiva, in termini di valutazione quantitativa del sistema neuromuscolare. Consente la misura della forza equivalente prodotta dal muscolo, la valutazione del tempo di attivazione di un muscolo, o di un gruppo di muscoli, e la stima dell’affaticamento muscolare.
La disponibilità di sistemi di misura multicanale, consente inoltre di quantificare le sinergie muscolari in specifiche condizioni di test: coordinamento degli arti inferiori nel cammino, attività muscolare nel controllo della postura, sinergie muscolari dell’arto superiore nei movimenti di afferramento (power grip) e nei movimenti di precisione delle dita della mano (precision grip).
Sinergie muscolari
In letteratura attualmente vi sono tre definizioni di sinergia muscolare che permettono, almeno in parte, di non fare eccessiva confusione nell’utilizzo del termine sinergia muscolare:

Analisi delle sinergie di tipo – C
Si tratta essenzialmente di un analisi della varianza e delle covarianze inter trial e intra trial.
Metodologie di “machine learning” nell’analisi dei segnali
In presenza di assemblaggi multicanale di segnali sEMG correlati a funzioni naturali ma complesse come le sinergie muscolari, è probabile che sia necessario utilizzare metodologie di estrazione o classificazione dell’informazione come quelle consentite dai metodi di machine learning o di approccio ai modelli classificativi con reti neurali. Si pensa ad esempio ad un approccio di “anomaly detection” che permette di individuare un pattern anomalo o patologico sulla scorta di una conoscenza sulla regolarità dello stesso fenomeno fino a quel momento osservata.
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sagittal brain
A chi è destinato il testo
Il testo è destinato alle professionalità che direttamente sono coinvolte in queste procedure e, in primo luogo, al neurofisiologo clinico che non può prescindere dall’analisi dei casi clinici presentati; in secondo luogo al tecnico di neurofisiopatologia che potrà trovare ampia documentazione delle metodiche utilizzate, delle indicazioni e dei limiti delle stesse. Non da ultime le figure del chirurgo e dell’anestesista che hanno la possibilità di confrontarsi con realtà e punti vista differenti, in particolare sugli stessi casi clinici.
Utilizzo del testo
Il manuale può essere utilizzato come testo di riferimento per la parte concettuale delle basi fisiopatologiche dei test strumentali e anche come atlante di riferimento per gli esempi e le problematiche cliniche che sono state analizzate. Lungi dall’essere completo ed esauriente, il testo vuole essere uno stimolo ad approfondire tematiche in continua e vivace evoluzione culturale. I riferimenti bibliografici sono sempre indicati allo scopo di un ulteriore approfondimento delle problematiche presentate.
Metodologie espositive
Si è cercato di conservare una metodologia espositiva quanto più omogenea tra i diversi autori, con l’ausilio di numerosi riferimenti alla propria esperienza personale.
Casistica esemplificativa
La casistica illustrata rappresenta l’esemplificazione della propria esperienza professionale, che viene esposta in quanto passibile di sicuro miglioramento, ma proprio per questo viene proposta anche come spunto di fondamentale riflessione sulle decisioni intraprese e sulle scelte effettuate in corso d’opera.
I casi descritti hanno lo scopo di passare in rassegna le diverse condizioni o complicazioni che ogni singolo caso pone; pur nella singolarità di ogni caso – paziente, si è cercato di classificare le singole problematiche per le maggiori categorie che più di frequente ci si può trovare ad affrontare.
Applicazioni della neurofisiologia intraoperatoria
E’ opinione comune che la neurofisiologia dedicata al monitoraggio sia sostanzialmente diversa da quella che si imposta e si utilizza in laboratorio. In realtà una approfondita conoscenza di tutti i principi e di tutte le metodiche che vengono utilizzate in laboratorio, è indispensabile per potere utilizzare la neurofisiologia come strumento di controllo intraoperatorio. Ad eccezione di alcune metodologie che sono applicabili solamente durante un intervento spinale o sovratentoriale in anestesia generale, tutte le metodiche utilizzate in IOM sono sostanzialmente ripetizioni o riadattamenti di quanto eseguito in laboratorio. Se ne fornisce una sintetica rassegna.
Il tronco nervoso periferico
La struttura anatomica può essere controllata ai fini di garantire un approccio chirurgico quanto più fisiologico possibile, senza danneggiare i contenuto di fibre del nervo; il controllo ideale dovrebbe estendersi alle fibre motorie, alle fibre sensitive e alle fibre del sistema termo dolorifico con le metodiche di conduzione motoria, sensitiva, risposte “F”, riflesso “H” e conduzione delle piccole fibre con stimolazione termica (laser).
Le radici spinali
Le radici spinai sono controllabili attraverso le risposte di conduzione afferente ed efferente delle fibre, a seconda del livello radicolare interessato. Si utilizzano le risposte “F”, la registrazione prossimale sui cordoni posteriori indicanti l’ingresso dell’attivazione radicolare afferente in seguito a stimolazione di uno o più tronchi nervosi derivanti dalla radice in interesse, oppure dalla superficie dermatomerica corrispondente. La stimolazione diretta della radice spinale consente di attivare risposte cmap dai segmenti muscolari innervati di competenza.
I plessi brachiale e lombosacrale
Nella chirurgia dei plessi brachiale e lombosacrale la neurofisiologia offre diverse opportunità. La stimolazione dei tronchi nervosi periferici permette di individuare le singole componenti del plesso brachiale o lombosacrale, registrando direttamente sui rami esposti del plesso. La stimolazione diretta dei fascicoli nervosi del plesso permette di individuarne l’appartenenza e la continuità anatomica, registrando le risposte cmap dai muscoli bersaglio (conduzione motoria efferente) oppure le risposte corticali da afferenza sensitiva sempre stimolando gli stessi fascicoli che contengono fibre motorie e sensitive. Anche la stimolazione elettrica diretta delle aree motorie permette di far transitare la conduzione efferente attraverso il plesso, registrando le risposte cmap dai muscoli bersaglio.
Il midollo spinale
La complessità delle vie di conduzione afferenti ed efferenti del midollo spinale può essere controllata solo in parte dalle metodiche neurofisiologiche, ma nonostante queste limitazioni, il contributo fornito non è assolutamente trascurabile. Infatti è possibile trasferire completamente le metodologie di stimolazione afferente delle vie somoestesiche dagli arti inferiori e dagli arti superiori, senza alcuna restrizione. Analogamente si ottiene facilmente l’attivazione della via motoria corticospinale e corticobulbare con stimolazione elettrica trans cranica.
La condizione operatoria (anestesia generale) ha invece consentito di sviluppare la metodica di registrazione della onda “D”, attraverso l’applicazione nello spazio sub durale o epidurale, di un catetere spinale registrante in sede prossimale e distale rispetto alla sede della lesione. In tal caso si ha il vantaggio di non dovere registrare dal muscolo bersaglio e pertanto il paziente può anche essere curarizzato e si evitano in tal modo gli artefatti da movimento muscolare che possono interferire con la stabilità del campo operatorio sotto l’ingrandimento microscopico.
Il tronco cerebrale
Numerose strutture fisiologicamente complesse racchiuse in un piccolo spazio anatomico, sono altamente suscettibili agli insulti di tipo meccanico (compressione / infiltrazione) e di tipo vascolare. La neurofisiologia ci consente di controllare la conduzione delle vie afferenti somoestesiche del lemnisco mediale, le vie afferenti uditive (lemnisco laterale), le vie efferenti attraverso il fascio corticospinale e corticobulbare e alcune risposte riflesse come il riflesso di ammiccamento che coinvolge le branche afferenti del V nervo cranico e le vie efferenti del VII nervo cranico. Le risposte riflesse prendono origine da una serie di connessioni multi sinaptiche tra i nuclei del VII e del V nervo cranico, omo e contro laterali. Tutte queste possibilità di esplorazione possono essere direttamente trasferite dal laboratorio alla sala operatoria, senza alcuna modifica, se non in senso positivo di rendere l’informazione acquisita bilaterale e di utilizzare una stimolazione trans cranica elettrica anziché magnetica, in quanto il paziente è in anestesia generale.
nervo cranico muscolo target
III – oculomotore retto mediale dell’occhio
IV – trocleare obliquo superiore
VI – abducente retto laterale dell’occhio
V – trigemino massetere
VII – faciale orbicolare dell’occhio, orbicolare della bocca, temporale
IX – glossofaringeo miloioideo, palato molle
X – vago corde vocali
XI – accessorio spinale trapezio, sternocleidomastoideo
XII – ipoglosso emilingua, palato molle
In aggiunta a quanto eseguibile anche in laboratorio, si dispone della possibilità di documentare la conduzione efferente dei nuclei dei nervi cranici rispettivamente collocati a livello del bulbo, del ponte e del mesencefalo. Nella tabella sono riassunti i nervi cranici ed i rispettivi muscoli bersaglio da cui è possibile documentare una risposta di potenziale d’azione composto prodotta dalla stimolazione delle fibre del nervo oppure dalla struttura cellulare componente il nucleo motore del nervo. Ponendo degli elettrodi registranti sul muscolo e stimolando il nervo corrispondente si ottengono risposte cmap che da un lato confermano la specifica competenza di innervazione del nervo stimolato e dall’altro permettono di individuare, nel caso si disponga di un sistema di registrazione multicanale, lo specifico nervo nel caso di più strutture ravvicinate come a livello pontino.
La fossa cranica posteriore
Negli interventi in fossa cranica posteriore abbiamo a disposizione tutto l’insieme di metodologie descritte nel caso del tronco cerebrale, cui dobbiamo aggiungere alcune considerazioni. Ad esempio non viene nemmeno presa in considerazione la possibilità di controllare alcune funzioni del cervelletto coinvolto da lesioni emisferiche o della porzione vermiana. Ma altrettanto importante sarebbe il controllo delle funzioni emisferiche cerebellari quando si verificano compressioni chirurgiche come l’applicazione di spatola di appoggio per aprire una strada a livello dell’angolo ponto cerebellare. Altrettanto importante sarebbe poter conoscere l’eventuale rischio di insorgenza di atassie assiali o lateralizzate in seguito a danno ischemico cerebellare.
Le strutture sovratentoriali
Negli interventi sulle strutture sovratentoriali il compito del monitoraggio intraoperatorio si arricchisce di un’ampia area di competenze, in particolare quando l’intervento viene condotto in anestesia locale a paziente sveglio e collaborante (awake craniotomy).

Negli interventi in anestesia generale è giocoforza che il controllo neurofisiologico sia centrato sul controllo delle vie di conduzione afferenti ed efferenti. La nostra esperienza tuttavia ci permette di raccomandare anche un controllo dell’attività elettrica spontanea (Eeg) sia con elettrodi posti sullo scalpo, si con elettrodi disposti sulla superficie corticale esposta e in sede sub durale. Si sottolinea che spesso è importante il controllo non solo della via cortico spinale e cortico bulbare e della via afferente somoestesica, ma anche della afferenza visiva, in particolare quando le lesioni temporali si portano molto in profondità fino a raggiungere le radiazioni ottiche.
In particolare il monitoraggio intraoperatorio del sistema motorio, in questi ultimi anni ha ricevuto notevole impulso e innovazione con l’introduzione della possibilità di registrare direttamente il segnale di conduzione della via motoria spinale (cordoni anterolaterali). Tale metodica è piuttosto insensibile alle variazioni dell’anestesia generale ed linearmente correlata all’intensità di stimolazione applicata a livello corticale (Amassian VE, 2002), al contrario della risposta muscolare cmap che presenta fluttuazioni caratteristiche dell’attivazione di una seconda stazione nucleare che è il motoneurone spinale (ciò comporta una relazione non lineare con lo stimolo elettrico applicato al motoneurone corticale).
L’onda “D”, o diretta , ottenuta da una singola stimolazione elettrica corticale, è il segnale di conduzione delle fibre del tratto cortico spinale, registrabile sulla superficie piale del midollo spinale. Tale componente è condotto dalle fibre cortico spinali a rapida velocità di conduzione senza interposte sinapsi. In relazione alla tipologia e intensità di stimolazione, in coda all’onda “D” si possono aggiungere componenti indirette (cosiddette onde “I”) che sono il risultato di un’attivazione transinaprica di interneuroni che scaricano lungo la via cortico spinale. La forma d’onda del segnale è tipicamente trifasica (pos – neg – pos) se biene registrata in modalità monopolare (elettrodo attivo in prossimità delle fibre ed elettrodo di riferimento distante) oppure bifasica (neg – pos) se registrata in modalità bipolare (coppia di elettrodi entrambi applicati sulla superficie spinale delle fibre attive).
La morfologia dell’onda “D” esprime l’entità del sincronismo di conduzione delle fibre (contengono differenti velocità di conduzione e, pertanto, all’aumentare della distanza di conduzione si accentua l’entità della de sincronizzazione delle stesse; e viceversa, a parità di distanza di conduzione, la comparsa di una de sincronizzazione di segnale è indicativa di insorgenza di blocco di conduzione fisiologica o patologica di sottopopolazioni di fibre ); fornisce un’indicazione quantitativa del numero di fibre attive. (ulteriore approfondimento nel capitolo spinale)
La trasformazione del segnale dell’onda “D” da trifasica a monofasica è indicativa della comparsa di una lesione parziale delle fibre del fascio cortico spinale. Questo fatto consente di individuare la sede della lesione prodotta da una contusione traumatica o da una compressione tumorale delle fibre del midollo spinale utilizzando multipli elettrodi di registrazione subdurali o epidurali.